The Language of Standardized Tests: List 2

The verb cite has nothing to do with the nouns sight or site. When you cite something, you are giving credit where credit is due in a piece of writing. You can cite a source formally with a citation (like you would in a research paper) or you can informally cite something as you refer to it in a piece of writing.

To reinforce is to make stronger. An author can refer to specific examples or make specific claims that reinforce a main idea. For example, an author might use data to call attention to increased water pollution in her state, and then include a personal story about fishing in a polluted river in order to reinforce her point.

When you restate something, you say or write it again. This word isn't only used to refer to exact repetition, however. A passage could restate an idea using different terms, and you could restate the main idea of a passage using your own words.

When you see the word develop on a reading comprehension test, it usually has to do with developing ideas throughout a piece of writing. Typically, a writer cannot make his or her case in one sentence; a good argument requires the writer to develop ideas over the course of several paragraphs.

To convey is to communicate, either directly or indirectly. You might be asked about the ideas a writer is trying to convey.

A comparison is putting things together to see how they are similar or different. A writer may make a comparison between two ideas or events. As a reader, you might make a comparison between two passages or literary works.

To contrast two things is to point out or emphasize how they are different. An author might include certain details to contrast two things.

A passage on a standardized test is a distinct block of text. You will see reading passages not only on reading comprehension tests, but also on assessments that focus on science, social studies, and other subjects. You'll see this word often in question stems, where you will be asked questions that begin "According to the passage..." or "The main purpose of the passage..."

To shift is to change. Sometimes a reading passage may take a turn in tone or message; the focus of a narrative may shift, or the writer's perspective might shift.

Previous means "just before." If test instructions refer to the "previous question," you need to look at the question just before the one you're now working on. Most likely, you will have to use some decisions you made in answering the last question to help you choose the answer to the question you are thinking about now.

Primarily is often used in standardized test questions to mean "mostly." For example, a test question may begin, "The author of Passage 1 refers to x primarily to suggest..." This is a way to tell you: "Sure, there could be other reasons the author refers to x, but you should be looking for the main reason!"

Just like central, the word primary tends to show up before words like purpose or claim to indicate that the main idea of a passage is being discussed, rather than less important or secondary ideas. If you're asked about a primary idea in a passage, rereading the introduction and conclusion may be a good strategy to "think big."

When you see argue on a standardized test, don't think "fight." Instead, think about making a point by building a logical argument. One author might argue that it is necessary to raise taxes on corporations, while another author argues in favor of tax cuts.

To support is to make stronger. You might be asked to identify evidence that supports an author’s claims, or you may be asked to interpret a graph and determine whether or not it supports a particular idea or conclusion. When you see the word support, think about all the things a writer does to prove his or her point.

Analysis goes beyond mere summary: it involves breaking an argument down and figuring out how the pieces work together.

This word has multiple meanings that could show up on a standardized test. If the test mentions an argument's or passage's one and only conclusion, it is probably referring to the final paragraph of the passage. If you see this word in its plural form, conclusions, it usually indicates the logical positions or opinions you can draw from an argument.

Something consistent is in agreement with something else. If you are asked to identify a written statement that is consistent with data being presented graphically, you need to find a statement from the text that agrees with the data.

If a word choice or example reflects a particular idea, it supports or agrees with that idea. Thinking about how a mirror reflects an image may help you remember the meaning of this word. Another meaning of reflect is to think about something deeply; in a passage, a writer might reflect on a certain topic.

An argument is a text or reading passage that advances a claim and supports that claim with evidence.

On reading comprehension tests, claim most likely refers to an author's main argument — what the writer is trying to persuade you to believe. There could be more than one claim in an argument, but reading passages will most likely have one central (or main) claim that is supported by different types of evidence.

Evidence is not just the stuff you collect at a crime scene! On standardized tests, textual evidence is information that supports an argument's central claim. It could take the form of examples, statistics, facts, etc.

To criticize is to be critical, to pick something apart and to identify its weak points. This is definitely a verb with a negative connotation. If an author is out to criticize, chances are he or she is using strong, harsh language.

To demonstrate is to show. The purpose of a passage could be to demonstrate a concept or a character trait, for example. The purpose of a chart could be to demonstrate that a scientist's data supports her hypothesis. Another word that is used in a similar way is illustrate.

When you see the word illustrate, don't think about fine art; think about how a writer "paints a picture" with words instead. A specific example could illustrate an abstract concept, for instance, or a graph of data could illustrate a scientist's conclusion.

When you confirm something, you prove it to be true. For example, the results of an experiment could confirm a hypothesis. You can remember this word by remembering how you have to confirm a doctor's appointment by saying, "Yes, I'll be there." Confirming has to do with establishing or validating.